Volumetric additive manufacturing via tomographic reconstruction
Fabrication goes for a quick spin
Most 3D printing techniques involve adding material layer by layer. This sets some limitations on the types of applications for which 3D printing is suitable, such as printing around a preexisting object. Kelly et al. present a different method for manufacturing by rotating a photopolymer in a dynamically evolving light field (see the Perspective by Hart and Rao). This allowed them to print entire complex objects through one complete revolution, circumventing the need for layering. The method may be particularly useful for high-viscosity photopolymers and multimaterial fabrication.
Abstract
Additive manufacturing promises enormous geometrical freedom and the potential to combine materials for complex functions. The speed, geometry, and surface quality limitations of additive processes are linked to their reliance on material layering. We demonstrated concurrent printing of all points within a three-dimensional object by illuminating a rotating volume of photosensitive material with a dynamically evolving light pattern. We printed features as small as 0.3 millimeters in engineering acrylate polymers and printed soft structures with exceptionally smooth surfaces into a gelatin methacrylate hydrogel. Our process enables us to construct components that encase other preexisting solid objects, allowing for multimaterial fabrication. We developed models to describe speed and spatial resolution capabilities and demonstrated printing times of 30 to 120 seconds for diverse centimeter-scale objects.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Already a Subscriber?Sign In
Supplementary Material
Summary
Materials and Methods
Supplementary Text
Figs. S1 to S20
Tables S1 to S3
Movies S1 to S5
Resources
References and Notes
1
E. MacDonald, R. Wicker, Multiprocess 3D printing for increasing component functionality. Science 353, aaf2093 (2016).
2
X. Wang, S. Xu, S. Zhou, W. Xu, M. Leary, P. Choong, M. Qian, M. Brandt, Y. M. Xie, Topological design and additive manufacturing of porous metals for bone scaffolds and orthopaedic implants: A review. Biomaterials 83, 127–141 (2016).
3
A. Bhargav, V. Sanjairaj, V. Rosa, L. W. Feng, J. Fuh Yh, Applications of additive manufacturing in dentistry: A review. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B 106, 2058–2064 (2018).
4
D. T. Nguyen, C. Meyers, T. D. Yee, N. A. Dudukovic, J. F. Destino, C. Zhu, E. B. Duoss, T. F. Baumann, T. Suratwala, J. E. Smay, R. Dylla-Spears, 3D-Printed Transparent Glass. Adv. Mater. 29, 1701181 (2017).
5
H. Gong, B. P. Bickham, A. T. Woolley, G. P. Nordin, Custom 3D printer and resin for 18 μm × 20 μm microfluidic flow channels. Lab Chip 17, 2899–2909 (2017).
6
T. D. Ngo, A. Kashani, G. Imbalzano, K. T. Q. Nguyen, D. Hui, Additive manufacturing (3D printing): A review of materials, methods, applications and challenges. Compos., Part B Eng. 143, 172–196 (2018).
7
A. Gebhardt, J.-S. Hötter, Additive Manufacturing: 3D Printing for Prototyping and Manufacturing (Carl Hanser Verlag, 2016); www.hanser-elibrary.com/doi/book/10.3139/9781569905838.
8
E. Sachs, E. Wylonis, S. Allen, M. Cima, H. Guo, Production of Injection Molding Tooling With Conformal Cooling Channels Using the Three Dimensional Printing Process. Polym. Eng. Sci. 40, 1232–1247 (2000).
9
M. Shusteff, A. E. M. Browar, B. E. Kelly, J. Henriksson, T. H. Weisgraber, R. M. Panas, N. X. Fang, C. M. Spadaccini, One-step volumetric additive manufacturing of complex polymer structures. Sci. Adv. 3, eaao5496 (2017).
10
C. W. Hull, “Apparatus for production of three-dimensional objects by stereolithography.” U.S. Patent 4,575,330 (1986).
11
J. R. Tumbleston, D. Shirvanyants, N. Ermoshkin, R. Janusziewicz, A. R. Johnson, D. Kelly, K. Chen, R. Pinschmidt, J. P. Rolland, A. Ermoshkin, E. T. Samulski, J. M. DeSimone, Additive manufacturing. Continuous liquid interface production of 3D objects. Science 347, 1349–1352 (2015).
12
P. F. Jacobs, Rapid Prototyping & Manufacturing: Fundamentals of StereoLithography (Society of Manufacturing Engineers, ed. 1, 1992).
13
G. N. Hounsfield, “Method and apparatus for measuring x- or γ-radiation absorption or transmission at plural angles and analyzing the data.” U.S. Patent 3,778,614 (1973).
14
J. Kastner, C. Heinzl, in Integrated Imaging and Vision Techniques for Industrial Inspection, Z. Liu, H. Ukida, P. Ramuhalli, K. Niel, Eds. (Advances in Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Series, Springer, 2015), pp. 227–250.
15
T. Bortfeld, J. Bürkelbach, R. Boesecke, W. Schlegel, Methods of image reconstruction from projections applied to conformation radiotherapy. Phys. Med. Biol. 35, 1423–1434 (1990).
16
A. K. O’Brien, C. N. Bowman, Impact of oxygen on photopolymerization kinetics and polymer structure. Macromolecules 39, 2501–2506 (2006).
17
Materials and methods are available as supplementary materials.
18
S. S. Cutié, D. E. Henton, C. Powell, R. E. Reim, P. B. Smith, T. L. Staples, The effects of MEHQ on the polymerization of acrylic acid in the preparation of superabsorbent gels. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 64, 577–589 (1997).
19
M. P. de Beer, H. L. van der Laan, M. A. Cole, R. J. Whelan, M. A. Burns, T. F. Scott, Rapid, continuous additive manufacturing by volumetric polymerization inhibition patterning. Sci. Adv. 5, eaau8723 (2019).
20
A. C. Kak, M. Slaney, Principles of Computerized Tomographic Imaging (Society of Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 2001).
21
G. N. Ramachandran, A. V. Lakshminarayanan, Three-dimensional reconstruction from radiographs and electron micrographs: Application of convolutions instead of Fourier transforms. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 68, 2236–2240 (1971).
22
J. Zhang, N. Pégard, J. Zhong, H. Adesnik, L. Waller, 3D computer-generated holography by non-convex optimization. Optica 4, 1306–1313 (2017).
23
R. Piestun, B. Spektor, J. Shamir, Wave fields in three dimensions: Analysis and Synthesis. J. Opt. Soc. Am. A Opt. Image Sci. Vis. 13, 1837–1848 (1996).
24
O. Tretiak, C. Metz, The Exponential Radon Transform. SIAM J. Appl. Math. 39, 341–354 (1980).
25
F. Natterer, Inversion of the attenuated Radon transform. Inverse Probl. 17, 113–119 (2001).
26
M. Ehrgott, Ç. Güler, H. W. Hamacher, L. Shao, Mathematical optimization in intensity modulated radiation therapy. Ann. Oper. Res. 175, 309–365 (2010).
27
S. V. Murphy, A. Atala, 3D bioprinting of tissues and organs. Nat. Biotechnol. 32, 773–785 (2014).
28
J. W. Lee, P. X. Lan, B. Kim, G. Lim, D.-W. Cho, 3D scaffold fabrication with PPF/DEF using micro-stereolithography. Microelectron. Eng. 84, 1702–1705 (2007).
29
M. Hegde, V. Meenakshisundaram, N. Chartrain, S. Sekhar, D. Tafti, C. B. Williams, T. E. Long, 3D Printing All-Aromatic Polyimides using Mask-Projection Stereolithography: Processing the Nonprocessable. Adv. Mater. 29, 1701240 (2017).
30
A. S. Wu, W. Small Iv, T. M. Bryson, E. Cheng, T. R. Metz, S. E. Schulze, E. B. Duoss, T. S. Wilson, 3D Printed Silicones with Shape Memory. Sci. Rep. 7, 4664 (2017).
31
Printing-rate modeling is described in sections S18 to S21 of the supplementary materials.
32
K. S. Lim, B. S. Schon, N. V. Mekhileri, G. C. J. Brown, C. M. Chia, S. Prabakar, G. J. Hooper, T. B. F. Woodfield, New Visible-Light Photoinitiating System for Improved Print Fidelity in Gelatin-Based Bioinks. ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng. 2, 1752–1762 (2016).
33
B. Kelly, I. Bhattacharya, M. Shusteff, H. Taylor, C. Spadaccini, “Computed Axial Lithography (CAL) for Rapid Volumetric 3D Additive Manufacturing” in Solid Freeform Fabrication 2017: Proceedings of the 28th Annual International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium (University of Texas at Austin, 2017), pp. 938–950; http://sffsymposium.engr.utexas.edu/sites/default/files/2017/Manuscripts/ComputedAxialLithographyforRapidVolumetric3D.pdf.
34
B. Kelly, I. Bhattacharya, M. Shusteff, R. M. Panas, H. K. Taylor, C. M. Spadaccini, Computed Axial Lithography (CAL): Toward Single Step 3D Printing of Arbitrary Geometries. arXiv:1705.05893 [cs.GR] (16 May 2017).
35
D. M. Ebenstein, Nano-JKR force curve method overcomes challenges of surface detection and adhesion for nanoindentation of a compliant polymer in air and water. J. Mater. Res. 26, 1026–1035 (2011).
36
Carbon, Inc., “Technical Data Sheet for Flexible Polyurethane (FPU) 3D Printer Material,” available at www.carbon3d.com/materials/fpu-flexible-polyurethane/ [accessed 16 January 2019].
37
N. Otsu, A Threshold Selection Method from Gray-Level Histograms. IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. 9, 62–66 (1979).
38
P. Kuchment, “Generalized Transforms of Radon Type and their Application” in The Radon Transform, Inverse Problems, and Tomography, vol. 63 of Proceedings of Symposia in Applied Mathematics, G. Ólafsson, E. Quinto, Eds. (American Mathematical Society, 2006); doi:
39
X. Zhang, X. N. Jiang, C. Sun, Micro-stereolithography of polymeric and ceramic microstructures. Sens. Actuators A 77, 149–156 (1999).
40
C. Sun, N. Fang, D. M. Wu, X. Zhang, Projection micro-stereolithography using digital micro-mirror dynamic mask. Sens. Actuators A 121, 113–120 (2005).
41
H. M. Laun, M. Rady, O. Hassager, Analytical solutions for squeeze flow with partial wall slip. J. Non-Newt. Fluid Mech. 81, 1–15 (1999).
42
X. Zheng, H. Lee, T. H. Weisgraber, M. Shusteff, J. DeOtte, E. B. Duoss, J. D. Kuntz, M. M. Biener, Q. Ge, J. A. Jackson, S. O. Kucheyev, N. X. Fang, C. M. Spadaccini, Ultralight, ultrastiff mechanical metamaterials. Science 344, 1373–1377 (2014).
43
Carbon, Inc., “Safety Data Sheet for UMA90 resin,” available at www.tth.com/wp-content/uploads/103367-UMA-90-US-SDS.pdf [accessed 14 August 2018].
44
Carbon, Inc., “Technical Data Sheet for UMA90 resin,” available at https://s3.amazonaws.com/carbon-static-assets/downloads/resin_data_sheets/UMA90_TDS.pdf [accessed 15 August 2018].
45
S. Yuan, F. Liu, J. He, Preparation and Characterization of Low Polymerization Shrinkage and Bis-GMA-Free Dental Resin System. Adv. Polym. Technol. 34, 21503 (2015).
46
H. P. Greenspan, L. N. Howard, On a time-dependent motion of a rotating fluid. J. Fluid Mech. 17, 385–404 (1963).
47
W. B. Watkins, R. G. Hussey, Spin‐up from rest in a cylinder. Phys. Fluids 20, 1596–1604 (1977).
48
J. Sharpe, U. Ahlgren, P. Perry, B. Hill, A. Ross, J. Hecksher-Sørensen, R. Baldock, D. Davidson, Optical projection tomography as a tool for 3D microscopy and gene expression studies. Science 296, 541–545 (2002).
49
H. Zollinger, Color Chemistry: Syntheses, Properties, and Applications of Organic Dyes and Pigments (Wiley, 2003).
50
Luminus Devices, Inc., “Luminus CBT-39 LED product datasheet,” available at https://download.luminus.com/datasheets/Luminus_CBT-39-UV_Datasheet.pdf [accessed 16 January 2019].
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Science
Volume 363 | Issue 6431
8 March 2019
8 March 2019
Copyright
Copyright © 2019 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works.
This is an article distributed under the terms of the Science Journals Default License.
Article versions
You are viewing the most recent version of this article.
Submission history
Received: 17 August 2018
Accepted: 18 January 2019
Published in print: 8 March 2019
Acknowledgments
We thank R. McLeod, R. Ng, J. Oakdale, R. Panas, L. Waller, and J. Zhang for helpful discussions. We gratefully acknowledge S. E. Arevalo for assistance with nanoindentation, A. Jordan for assistance with tensile testing, I. Ladner for assistance with roughness measurements, and R. Weitekamp for the gift of a projector module. Funding: This work was supported by U.C. Berkeley faculty start-up funds (to H.K.T.) and by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Laboratory-Directed Research and Development funding 14-SI-004 (to C.M.S.) and 17-ERD-116 (to M.S.). The work was performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under contract DE-AC52-07NA27344 (LLNL-JRNL-755660). Author contributions: H.K.T., M.S., and C.M.S. planned the research and provided the overall direction; B.E.K., H.H., H.K.T., and M.S. designed experiments; B.E.K. and H.H. conducted experiments; I.B. developed the projection computation algorithm; H.K.T. and I.B. built the process models; and all authors contributed to analysis and to writing and refining the manuscript. Competing interests: The authors are inventors on a U.S. patent application related to this work (15/593,947). All authors declare that they have no other competing interests. Data and materials availability: All data are available in the manuscript or the supplementary materials. Algorithm pseudocode is available in the supplementary materials (section S12). Source .stl files for The Thinker and dental model geometries were obtained from www.thingiverse.com/thing:34343 and www.thingiverse.com/thing:1209567, respectively (both under the CC BY 3.0 license).
Authors
Funding Information
U.S. Department of Energy: DE-AC52-07NA27344
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Article Usage
Altmetrics
Citations
Export citation
Select the format you want to export the citation of this publication.
Cited by
- Direct 2D-to-3D transformation of pen drawings, Science Advances, 7, 13, (2021)./doi/10.1126/sciadv.abf3804
- Advances in additive manufacturing of shape memory polymer composites, Rapid Prototyping Journal, 27, 2, (379-398), (2021).https://doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-07-2020-0174
- Additive-Free and Support-Free 3D Printing of Thermosetting Polymers with Isotropic Mechanical Properties, ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 13, 4, (5529-5538), (2021).https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c19608
- Review of Low-Cost 3D Bioprinters: State of the Market and Observed Future Trends, SLAS TECHNOLOGY: Translating Life Sciences Innovation, 26, 4, (333-366), (2021).https://doi.org/10.1177/24726303211020297
- Anisotropic Metasurface Holography in 3-D Space With High Resolution and Efficiency, IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, 69, 1, (302-316), (2021).https://doi.org/10.1109/TAP.2020.3008659
- 3D Tissue and Organ Printing—Hope and Reality, Advanced Science, 8, 10, (2003751), (2021).https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202003751
- Analyzing part accuracy and sources of variability for additively manufactured lattice parts made on multiple printers, Additive Manufacturing, 40, (101924), (2021).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.101924
- Additive manufacturing of structural materials, Materials Science and Engineering: R: Reports, 145, (100596), (2021).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mser.2020.100596
- Supramolecular Biopolymers for Tissue Engineering, Advances in Polymer Technology, 2021, (1-23), (2021).https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8815006
- Perspective: 3D bioprinted skin - engineering the skin for medical applications, Annals of 3D Printed Medicine, 3, (100018), (2021).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stlm.2021.100018
- See more
Loading...
View Options
Get Access
Log in to view the full text
AAAS login provides access to Science for AAAS Members, and access to other journals in the Science family to users who have purchased individual subscriptions.
- Become a AAAS Member
- Activate your AAAS ID
- Purchase Access to Other Journals in the Science Family
- Account Help
Log in via OpenAthens.
Log in via Shibboleth.
More options
Register for free to read this article
As a service to the community, this article is available for free. Login or register for free to read this article.
Buy a single issue of Science for just $15 USD.
View options
PDF format
Download this article as a PDF file
Download PDF